Jay H. Paul, S.E., is
the CEO of Klein and Hoffman, Inc., Chicago, Illinois,
where he heads the restoration engineering group. He has over 17 years
experience in the evaluation and repair of concrete structures. Mr.
Paul is Chairman of ACI Committee 546, Repair of Concrete.
The objective of a tank or reservoir inspection program is to help
owners keep the facilities in operation as long as possible with minimal
downtime. That means identifying defects that can result in contamination
or failure of the structure.
Effective repairs begin with a thorough inspection. With careful planning
and preparation, condition surveys provide valuable information about
the causes of deterioration and distress. The appropriate remedy can
only be applied when the problem is identified.
Prior to inspection
Specialized structures, such as concrete water tanks or reservoirs,
present unique challenges. Plant personnel, with their extensive knowledge
of the facility, are an integral part of the inspection process. Their
involvement from the earliest stage on is crucial.
Downtime for inspections must be limited because of the importance
of a tank or reservoir to communities they serve. So when establishing
an inspection program, several practical issues need to be considered.
Availability: Because of service demands, especially during
peak periods (summer months), inspections often have to be done during
the winter. Given the added complications of cleanup, access, lighting,
safety, and confined space entry requirements (see below), adequate
lead time must be provided for organizing the operation and bringing
together the necessary personnel.
Construction: The configurations and ages of the structures
vary. Many were built under the guidelines of obsolete codes or out-of-date
design/construction standards. Often, little background or data on
the history of a structure are available.
Dewatering: Emptying the tank is not always a simple procedure.
Nor is it something that can be done quickly. In some instances, base
slabs may not be designed for high ground water conditions. The appropriate
time for emptying a tank designed in this manner needs to be determined
by rainfall as opposed to seasonal water demands. After dewatering,
tanks must be adequately cleaned to facilitate a proper inspection.
Silt, sand, or other contaminants are often present and must be removed.
Often a facility cannot be entirely dewatered because of plant operations.
Since a dry tank is not always possible, appropriate preparations
(hip boots, laydown areas, etc.) must be made well in advance to avoid
delays.
Safety: State and federal requirements for confined space entry
must be met. Ventilation and air quality must be evaluated prior to
entry. Dangerous areas, such as sumps or a sudden drop, must be cordoned
off to prevent accidents. The distance between roof and base slabs
can often exceed 20ft (6m). Provisions such as rolling platforms,
scaffolds, ladders, or other means must be provided to facilitate
inspection of the ceilings.
Classroom instruction and certification in safety issues are necessary.
All members of the inspection team, from photographers to engineers,
must learn proper entrance procedures, the use of fall protection
devices and oxygen equipment, as well as how to identify unsafe conditions.
Tank Environment: It is usually damp (almost rainy) and cold
within the structure, which makes it very difficult to write or draw
sketches. The high humidity often makes cameras and other equipment
malfunction. Backup equipment for documentation should be on hand
to prevent costly downtime. In addition, provisions for adequate lighting
and power must be made prior to entering the facility.
Clothing: Appropriate clothing (boots, safety harnesses, protective
jumpsuits) must be worn by all personnel entering the tank or reservoir.
Inspection preliminaries
A review of available drawings, reports, and other facility documentation
is recommended prior to entry. A thorough knowledge of existing construction
and potential problems will result in a more efficient and safer inspection
effort.
Ideally, an initial inspection should be performed to become familiar
with the facility and identify potentially dangerous areas. Plans,
as well as wall elevations, should be prepared prior to performing
the inspection to document findings during the inspection process.
An examination of the tank or reservoir's exterior for signs of structural
distress can be used later to correlate internal findings.
Should initial cursory observation indicate a tank may have foundation-related
problems and/or excessive cracking, topographic and elevation surveys
may be in order. These studies can establish criteria to monitor future
movements of the structure.
It is often helpful to perform limited structural computations, if
adequate data are available, to determine the adequacy of the original
design. The results can be used to target areas for potential problems.
Minimizing downtime should be a priority in all inspections. If material
testing is to be included in the evaluation, determine, in advance,
what personnel and equipment will be needed onsite.
A materials testing program may include the following tasks:
- Extraction of cores for petrographic analysis, compression strength,
and other tests to evaluate the condition and strength of the
concrete.
- Extraction of cores through cracks to determine the extent and
nature of cracking.
- Extraction of reinforcing bars for testing.
- R-meter testing to determine location and depths of existing
reinforcing.
- Impact echo testing to determine if there is internal cracking
or voids in the concrete
- Swiss hammer or Windsor probe to estimate concrete strength.
- Chloride analysis to determine if calcium chloride as an additive
was used during original construction.
- Sounding of the concrete surface with a chain drag or hammer
to detect internal delamination.
Also, plan for necessary cleanup or efforts to repair destructive
testing. Patching core holes and cavities where reinforcing bars were
removed can add to the length of an inspection.
In some cases, the tops of buried reservoirs must be uncovered to
evaluate the stab, underdrain systems, waterproofing membranes, and
expansion joints. Arrangements for excavation equipment and personnel
must be made prior to the inspection.
Onsite inspection
Whether the purpose of the inspection is to evaluate the general
condition of the facility, determine benchmark criteria for comparison
during subsequent inspections, or gather data for upgrades or maintenance
and repair programs, the required tasks are basically the same.
What is likely to be found during an investigation is the following:
Cracks: Two of the most serious issues, leaks and contamination,
are the direct result of cracks. Primarily, buried tanks are not
subject to the same thermal movements that structures exposed directly
to the weather are. They are less likely to experience cracks (and
leaks) than above-ground or partially exposed tanks. Tanks with
above-grade walls, however, are prone to leaks.
Diagonal cracks are found most often near corners, and vertical
cracks appear more frequently along the length of the tank (Fig.
1). Generally, both types of cracks are not structural in nature
- they're due to volumetric changes in length. Cracks in walls are
less likely to be a source of contaminate infiltration. Instead,
they tend to be sources of leaks from the tank (see photo on p.
62).
Cracks in base slabs do not usually pose a contamination problem,
although when tanks are empty, base slab cracks can allow contaminants
to infiltrate. More often, water reservoirs are at least partially
full, creating leakage conditions for cracks in base slabs.
Most cracks in exposed tank walls move and change in width with
seasonal temperature changes. Tanks with moving cracks will leak
more in the winter than in the summer, when the cracks tend to close.
As a result, it is common to see ice forming at the cracks in colder
months.
The most common cause for cracking in the top of exposed tanks is
due to thermal stresses. Many of the structures lack expansion joints.
Because of the immense size of these reservoirs, structural components
exposed to the weather, especially the top slab, go through significant
temperature changes. If the resulting stresses are not properly
accommodated (i.e., through properly designed expansion joints),
cracks will develop to relieve the stresses. These cracks are major
sources for the infiltration of contaminants, which is obviously
a serious concern for tanks that hold potable water.
A majority of these structures are flat slabs with capitals and
columns about 20 to 25 ft (6.0 to 7.5 m) on center. The crack pattern,
leading to leaks, is typically observed in the following manner:
a) diagonal from the corners, and b) per- pendicular to the exterior
walls around the perimeter contiguous with cracking in the walls.
Essentially, nature is furnishing the expansion joints and control
joints not properly provided in the original construction (Fig.
2)
Deteriorated concrete: Freeze-thaw damage at the water line,
especially with older tanks lacking air entrained concrete, is very
common. Delamination due to corrosion of the reinforcing, however,
is not a major problem in these facilities.
Poor roof drainage: The regulations regarding roof drains
for potable water storage facilities are quite stringent. Drain
piping cannot be exposed to the water below for fear of contamination.
Most often when drains exist, they are placed within the columns.
However, they frequently are not effective. Deflection occurs in
the slab areas between columns where water accumulates until it
can evaporate (Fig.3). If any cracks are present within these low
areas, water will eventually penetrate the slab unless sealants
or membranes are provided to alleviate the problem.
Poor detailing: Many problems occur due to poor detailing.
The lack of proper expansion joints, improperly placed control joints,
and insufficient roof slopes are quite common.
Very serious structural problems can result if adequate overflows
are not provided in the structures. Should an accidental overflow
condition occur, internal pressures pushing against the underside
of the top slab can result in punching shear failures (Fig. 4).
Maintenance/previous repairs: The improper application of
repair materials can lead to problems that weren't originally there.
Often, moving cracks are mistakenly injected with rigid epoxy. As
a result, a new crack forms directly adjacent to the patch to relieve
the pressure.
Another incorrect repair procedure is the use of nonbreath- ing
membranes applied to the top surface of reservoir roofs. Eventually,
the build-up of moisture on the underside of the membrane and resulting
vapor drive causes the membrane to fail.
Failed waterproofing: An evaluation of the condition of the
waterproofing system is an important part of any tank inspection.
Be on the lookout for materials, such as sealants and membranes,
that have exceeded their useful life. Signs to look for include
peeling or worn membranes on top surfaces. Debonded, cracked, or
gummy caulking indicate the sealant is no longer functional.
Obsolete design: Often, older tanks and reservoirs that may
have been state of the art at the time of construction, don't meet
current design standards - a reservoir built in 1922 had a 900 ft
(274 m) long buried water reservoir that incorporated a three-way
flat slab structural system. Although the structure had sufficient
strength to support the 2 ft (0.6 in) of soil above, it had inadequate
shrinkage reinforcement across the column strips. As a result, the
top slab cracked longitudinally at the center of each column strip,
allowing contaminant infiltration.
Preparing a report
When conducting an inspection, all findings should be documented
on plans and elevations, along with notes. Photographs are mandatory.
Video taping may also be useful.
Upon completion of the evaluation, the problems unique to each facility
should be thoroughly addressed in a report. The report should be
organized to present information to enhance recordkeeping and decision-making
by the owner. Below is a suggested report format:
- Executive summary
- Inspection methodology
- Construction description
- Findings and observations (classified by component)
- Conclusions (classified by component)
- Recommendations
- Engineering opinion of cost
- Captioned photographs
Conclusion
The objective of the inspection and resulting
report is to assess the existing condition of the structure and
make recom- mendations about how best to extend its useful life
with minimal service interruptions through either maintenance or
repairs.
This article was originally published in Concrete International,
the magazine of the American Concrete Institute, August 1998.
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